Many articles have been written about aerial fire fighting focussing on the water bombers role and activities on a fire. Some of these articles have been factual with only a small amount of embellishment and others not. Unfortunately I have never been in a bomber over a fire so I'll not even attempt to do another bombing article. What I can write about is the often forgotten and under played role of the Spotter.
I have been the Spotter pilot in the Zululand area since June 1995. In the seasons I've flown I have seen every imaginable fire and experienced the weather conditions that go hand in hand with catastrophic wild fires. I have seen and flown with firestorms that reach out of the tree canopy to 300ft. I've witnessed a fire that throws burning logs 5km ahead of the fire front. Winds of 110km/hr that push a fire over 6000 hectare in 6 hours. Admittedly these fires are few and far between and the bombers are right down in the smoke and flame but they are a different story altogether.
This is the story of Spotter pilots and what they have to deal with
What is a Spotter?
A spotter aircraft is an airborne observation platform that is a relay between ground to air, air-to-air and ground-to-ground communications. The pilot gives the ground crew observations of the fire behaviour, direction of travel, area burning and areas threatened by the advancing fire front. When experience is gained the spotter can give recommendations for the positioning of ground crews and methods of attack.
His primary job is to guide in the bombers and relay messages from the ground crews about where they need loads. The bombers operate very low and they often can't see the target. The spotter is flying higher and can see the overall picture. The spotter can see straight down through the trees or smoke. If the bombers can't see the flame it is the spotters job to describe the targets in such a way that the bombers can line themselves up on a general heading. The spotter then gives final line adjustments and distance estimations to the target. The spotter can also call the drop if the target is still not visible.
The ground crew often can't see where the fire is burning because of thick smoke and dense vegetation. The spotter then assists with the ground operations.
What happens over a fire?
The spotter's job starts with finding the fire. In the Zululand area we patrol when the FDI hits 60. The bombers are used on fires from a FDI of 50. Patrols are flights which cover the whole forested area to try and spot the fire before it gets too big. The theory here is that if the fire is found early it will be attacked immediately by the aircraft and either held until ground crews arrive or extinguished before getting out of control. When a fire gets set in and burns out of control man can do very little to prevent massive timber loss.
The bombers are used as a first line of attack in Zululand so the spotter activates the bombers and opens communications with the company on whose land the fire is burning. The bombers call the spotter after getting airborne and the spotter gives them directions to the fire and describes what the fire looks like. He also warns them of power lines in the close vicinity, high ground, "widow makers" which are single trees sticking out of the canopy, flying conditions over the fire and any other danger that they could encounter on their bombing run. He must check on closest airfield status and prepare the crews for reloading.
The ground crew are now getting organised and they often need very precise directions on how to get to the flanks so he must know where the crews are coming from and all the access routes.
The bombers will be brought in and their loads dropped to contain the fire spread.
When the spotter is over a fire that is rapidly getting out of control an area manager or senior forester will sometimes request that he be picked up and he will then take over the ground to air communications. This helps a lot because the spotter has an extremely high workload on a big fire. Some of the areas insist on two crew operations, which I personally think is a very good idea on a major fire.
The pilot is faced with the following difficulties.
Turbulence and very adverse flying conditions that require constant small control movements.
The bombers calling on the VHF radio and the ground crew working and asking questions on the forestry radio.
Keeping a constant situational awareness of where the ground crews and aircraft are.
Always being at the right place at the right time to line bombers up for their drops.
Weather Conditions
One of the most important aspects of Forestry Fire Fighting is weather conditions. The correct definition of the word weather is precipitation so that isn't the problem. The problem lies in the conditions preceding the ‘weather'.
High winds out of the North West, high temperatures and low humidity forecasts or actual conditions mean that any fire that is started will spread at a very fast rate. The opposite conditions work for the good of everyone.
FDI / FDR
These may be new terms and need some explanation.
The FDR (Fire Danger Rating) is a national system to give a broad indication of what a fire will do after ignition and resources will be needed to control it. In the FDR is the FDI.
The FDI (Fire danger Index) is a number out of 100 that gives some indication of what will happen after a fire is put in. Notice that FDI's do not start fires. People do that 99.99 percent of the time. There are 5 colour ratings. Blue - 0 to 20, Green - 21 to 45, Yellow - 46 to 60, Orange - 61 to 75 and Red - 76 to 100. Each colour will mean different readiness for you and the ground fire fighters. It will also drastically change how the fires will behave. Get to know you FDI table as a good reference and follow your Best Operating Procedures.
The spotter must at all times be aware of what the weather is going to do. Keep up to date with all weather data available to you. The operations room will know what the actual and forecast weather and FDI are. The foresters also have access to this info but they tend to rely on the spotter pilot to keep them up to date.
Wind
The spotter over a fire must be aware of any impending wind change and must advise the ground crew. Remember that an unexpected wind change on the ground could cost lives on the fire line. The wind shift will also change the line of attack. Try to picture which flank will be the most dangerous and kill that flank before the wind changes.
Watch for the signs yourself too. A impending south wind can be seen as a line of cloud towards Durban. Limited visibility with lots of haze show a north wester. If you have got time talk to other pilots flying in from the south coast or from inland, they may have already flown through the wind shift. Try to keep a good situational awareness of the whole region, not only your sector.
Keep communications with your home base, especially Eshowe, because the south wind can bring in very low cloud that can close in the airfield very quickly. Don't push the envelope to get home. Rather enjoy the evening with the foresters and live to fly another day.
The wind also causes severe turbulence. Before we get to how to fly in a sky full of holes one must work out what is causing the holes.
The main turbulence you will encounter is mountain, frontal and heat.
Mountain Turbulence
The name says it all.
Wind blowing over a mountain or series of hills causes waves or rotors of air. The wind speeds up on the up slope and creates a region of downdraft on the leeward side. The up slope wave can be ‘surfed' to gain altitude and is normally smoother to fly in. The leeward side if the exact opposite. The downdraft can be very strong and can very easily force you into the trees.
A good friend once gave me a very good piece of advice that I will never forget....
"There is only one thing to remember about flying.
Never run out of height, airspeed or ideas. If you can keep at least one of these you will be alright."
Don't get into the down draft, but if you do get out fast by going downwind. If the wind is strong a C182 will not climb out into the wind. I've seen a Turbo Thrush turn and run because of a mountain wave!! The worst of the wave is normally close to the ridge so moving away should get you out of danger. Remember not to go back there again. A whole series of mountain waves at altitude just make the ride uncomfortable.
Frontal turbulence
Air masses of different temperature can be compared to water of different temperatures. Both don't like to mix.
If you are flying patrols and over fires you are definitely in the warm air sector. The air is hot, dry and the wind is probably coming out of the northwest. The south Easter or Wester will be coming. That air is cool, moist, dense and more than likely travelling at 40 knots. When those two air masses clash all hell breaks loose. Fortunately the convergence zone is fairly narrow. Don't let the wind change catch you unawares as the turbulence is severe. Obviously if the fronts are weak the change will hardly be felt. It is the big one to watch out for. Once again listen to the ops room and any other traffic talking about the turbulence. "Height, airspeed and ideas"
Fire turbulence
Fires are hot. Hot air rises and causes severe updrafts and limited visibility. Very dense smoke can cause engine failure due to lack of oxygen. In all cases steer clear of intentional entry into smoke. The procedure if you do fly into smoke is this. Go onto instruments immediately. Try not fight the aircraft but get your wings level and the nose up. Watch airspeed and hang on. With any luck the smoke will clear quickly. There is a very good chance the plane will go in if you aren't at altitude. When the air above the fire burns to 300 foot you'll see why it isn't clever to fly through smoke. Need I say more?
Flight Safety
Turbulence
Flying in severe turbulence is an art that doesn't come easily. The only thing that makes it hard is that the key factor is RELAX. The problem is that the last thing you want to do is relax.
-The only way to fly safely through turbulence is to not fight the aircraft.
-Keep your speed down to between 90 and 110 mph. Speed in turbulence is fatal.
-Use coordinated rudder and aileron in small constant movements. Keep alive on your feet and pick up any wing drop with rudder, especially on finals and in slow flight.
-Work out what is causing the turbulence and use it to your advantage ie mountain waves.
-Let the aircraft do all the work and leave keeping flight levels for flight tests.
-Never go below best angle of climb speed.
-If the speed builds up in updrafts or downdrafts raise the nose and if necessary reduce power. A C182 will fly quite happily at 15 inches of manifold pressure so don't be afraid to use the whole green arc. For interest sake I find the best throttle setting over a fire, which gives the best speed, and most comfortable ride is 16 to 18 inches, with the pitch at about 2400 rpm. At this setting the speed settles down nicely but be ready to put all the power back if needed. This is for an average day on an average fire. Find your own settings and the flying becomes much easier.
-Never do high G turns in turbulence. On some days even rate one turns are too steep. Think ahead of the aircraft and the bombers so that you never have to do steep turns to get back on station. Remember that your stall speed increases with the angle of bank. Now throw in some 4 G bumps and you can see the potential for unexpected inverted flight.
-Never have any loose, heavy articles in the aircraft. Keep your passengers tied down too. I had a case of losing my Dictaphone to the back of the aircraft in heavy turbulence. My mate had to go and fetch it. On one particular bump he was lying on the ceiling. Needless to say, what goes up must come down. The problem is that you come down at 5 times your normal body weight.
Crosswinds
Landings
You will have to do crosswind landings, sometimes in really strong winds. The bottom line is feel your aircraft and if at any time the picture looks wrong, go around. It will be more embarrassing to bend the aircraft.
-The best method for our work is to crab on finals and once in ground effect change to wing down into wind. The trick is that the fields are short and the touch down point is fairly critical. Don't come in too slow or too fast. That sounds like double Dutch but it is true.
-Beware of wind shear if the field is in tall trees. Trees cause an incredible amount of turbulence close to the ground especially Vosters outside Kwambonambi and Umfulazane near Melmoth.
-Keep alive on the rudders and if you float too much because of gusting winds dump the flap. Hold the aircraft in a fairly level attitude and fly her all the way to the ground without letting the speed build up.
-Dumping flap is to be done very carefully. The dump height is critical because if it's too high you'll do damage. The reason why it isn't taught at flying schools is that they never fly in marginal conditions with short fields and the average pupil hasn't the experience yet.
Remember what dumping flap does.
-It destroys the substantial lift and drag being developed and the aircraft sinks rapidly to the ground.
-It causes the nose to come up
These two things must be kept in mind and speed must never be excessive. In other words don't think that dumping flap is there for that approach where you misjudge you height and airspeed and just decide to drop flap to get on the ground. That will cause bodily injury and death.
-Use maximum braking immediately after touch down to check for brake failure. Some aircraft have severe brake fade on rough airfields. Pump them a few times and the problem goes away.
Taxiing
Before you take off you have to taxi. Too many people have caused aircraft to be expensively damaged on the ground.
-Never taxi blind off the mowed sections of runway, even in Eshowe there is a good chance of having the front wheel eaten by a hole.
-Beware of quartering tailwind and crosswinds on the ground. Use your controls to destroy lift on the ‘into' wind wing and your elevator to keep the tail down.
-In extreme conditions ask the ground crew to hold the wings and tail.
-Excessive power is not a good idea in any taxiing, especially on rough airfields. If power is needed, use full backpressure on the stick. Know where the wind is coming from at all times.
-On take off use the controls all the way again. Gain enough speed for a clean lift off and immediately crab into the wind to benefit from the headwind effect. Climb away at a slightly higher airspeed and watch for wind shear.
DownwindOperations
Normally downwind take offs and landings are frowned upon because of the potential for disaster but they have to be done fairy often. Ask any bomber pilot about the stories. A good yard stick is...Is there a very good reason and never land or take-off downwind if the bombers aren't.
Landings
-The most critical aspect is air speed. Notice that it is air speed and not ground speed. Your ground speed is going to be much faster but that is a ground problem. Never let your airspeed drop too low and get set up further out on finals. The trap is to pull all the power off to slow down on short finals when it is too late. Your air speed will build up slower on a go around too so keep wide-awake. On a go around situation keep the nose down in ground effect to build up speed. Once again expect wind shear.
-Land as short as possible because of your higher ground speed and use maximum braking.
-Raising flap is also a good trick to keep up your sleeve remembering that once the flap is raised you have no go around unless you are on a very long field, which you won't be.
Take-offs
A 5 knot tailwind will increase your take off run by 25% so use short field tactics i.e. 20 degrees of flap and full power against brakes but don't climb away from the ground until the speed builds up. Use ground effect to build up airspeed.
An air force trick for maximum lift and minimum drag flap setting is very useful. Go full aileron deflection left or right on the ground before take off. Move the flaps down until they are parallel / same angle with the down facing aileron. This is the best angle of lift flap. Check on the flap indicator, if you believe it, and you will see it will be down to 18 to 22 degrees. What does the book say??? Probably 20 degrees. All ailerons are rigged for max roll rate at this setting.
Dump the flap straight after take off at own risk. Use the lift until speeds are up or height is sufficient.
NEVER turn down wind straight after take-off. You will crash and burn.
Leave the "climb after take off at 90 mph" for flight tests. Rather climb at a higher speed for stability and to punch through the low level turbulence.
Fuel Management
-Trust the gauges at your own peril! Find out the usable and work on time only. You should know your endurance to the minute.
-Work out your approximate consumption at every refuel. If it changes considerably find out why.
-Keep very close tabs on fuel stocks on the airfields. It will be your fault if you run out. Always have 2 drums (about 7 hours) on hand. For interest sake the book figures on C182 fuel consumption is 50 to 55 litres/hour. Budget on about 60 as you will often be mixture fully rich over a fire to help control cylinder head temperatures.
-Only use sealed drums. Try to time it so that you uplift one drum at a time to avoid leaving costly fuel that is unusable in the drums.
-Pump about 1 litre of fuel through the pipes onto the ground to check for contamination.
-On a bad day, or when arson is rife keep your aircraft full at all times. There will come a day where you land once in 5 hours.
-Beware of leaving the aircraft parked on a slope, on a hot day with the fuel selector on ‘Both'. You'll find half your fuel draining onto the grass. In theory the aircraft shouldn't cross feed as bad as they do but I've used lots of C182s and they all do. In this case leave the selector on ‘Left' or ‘Right'. Never leave it on ‘Off'. It's too easy to forget in a hurry.
Where possible, park on level ground with the tanks on both.
Engine Management
-To save time on engine warm up first start the engine and then get strapped in and do you post start up checks. Cold engines wear faster and can stop suddenly in flight. Rather spend an extra 2 minutes on warm up.
-Never pull the power all the way back in flight. Think ahead and avoid shock cooling.
-Use carb heat on hot, humid days to clear any icing. Icing can happen at some amazing outside temps if the humidity is right.
-Cowl flaps are there as an aid to control engine temperatures and pressures. Don't forget them closed on a hot day because the engine will seize.
-Rather leave the mixture fully rich than burn valves. Fuel is cheap compared to engines. In the same breath, slight leaning on a hot, high and heavy take-off can give an extra 200-rpm when you need it most.
-Mixture fully rich may assist a little on a very hot day over a fire to keep CHT's in line. Monitor your "T's and P's" constantly in flight.
General Flying
-If you are stuck in a valley for any reason and need to turn around follow this basic manoeuvre.
-Don't use excessive bank or backpressure on the stick. Let the nose fall through in a balanced turn i.e. ball in the middle. You will loose altitude but the radius of the turn will be small. Practice this at altitude first.
- The flying ace Immelmann invented another minimum radius, max rate ‘canyon turn', hence the name Immelman turn. Apparently it works very well in dogfights!! This is how it goes. Bring the speed right back with power below the green arc. Start the turn with a balanced, fairly steep rate of bank but minimal backpressure. As the turn is started take full flaps. Don't over G the aircraft, increase the power in the turn and roll out on the reciprocal heading. Watch your airspeed as it bleeds off in seconds and let the nose fall through if you need excessive Gs to do a level turn. You will be amazed at how quickly you are heading the other way. Raise the flaps slowly, in increments, and get out of where you were. Once again, practice at altitude!
-You will be given a small Dictaphone in your flight kit. We use them in Zululand to keep a complete log of all movements and occurrences on the fire. To put it simpler note any change in the situation or problems encountered on the tape. Read one of the past fire reports as an example. You will be expected to do fire reports on all fires of more than 2 loads. The only way you will get that right is to keep the tape up to date. You will probably learn to hate fire reports more than the fires!!
-Try and be as gentle as possible on your aircraft at all times. Look after your aircraft and she will look after you. It doesn't hurt to keep her clean either.
-Don't throw all your checks out of the window. Checks are there for a very good reason, mainly to keep pilots alive for longer.
-Always do a thorough post flight after heavy turbulence or a long stretch of flying. Report snags immediately to the operations manager.
-Do not carry unnecessary passengers. Accidents can happen very fast and rather have minimal weight and human life in the cockpit when the chips are down.
-We have lost 2 spotter aircraft carrying 2 pilots and 3 passengers in the past 5 years. Both accidents happened on non-fire related sorties. Both low and slow for whatever reasons. If you want to play games do it by yourself so that we don't have to go to the passengers, or your, family with a box of ashes. Keep your mind in the right place at all times. You have to be super aware of the aircraft as the flying environment that we work in leaves no room for error.
-Every single flight will be preceded by a call to the operations room with the reason for the flight and names of passengers. Never take off without someone knowing where you are going and who with. There is no such thing as joy rides in our profession. You will fly with senior management; scare them and you'll make a very bad name for yourself.
Bombers
Bomber pilots are a strange breed. They know their machines backwards and have more than likely been flying longer than you or I have been walking. Never be shy to ask them for advice. Some of the best people I know are or were bombers and it takes a special person to do what they do. They are a wealth of stories of narrow escapes and close calls. Don't ever think you can fly like they do and do things with your C182 like they can. In 40 years, maybe. Right now all you can do is listen to everything they say about flying and learn from their mistakes. They have seen the movie and got the T-shirt.
One good thing is that they find it very difficult to fight a fire without the help of a spotter. We have a use after all.
The most important job in aerial fire fighting is to get water onto the fire. You can't do it yourself but you can give the bombers good info and lines to ensure that they do their job quickly and efficiently.
As said earlier the spotter aircraft is at a higher altitude to be the bombers eyes.
The bomber has the following difficulties.
-His aircraft is handling like a C182 at max all up weight at 15 000 feet.
-He is very low. Ridges, trees, smoke, the sun etc obscure his forward vision.
-The wind affects the load distribution.
-Turbulence is a whole bunch worse where he is!!!
-The spotter must be able to give the bomber a picture before he gets there about the conditions and potential hazards e.g. power lines, trees, turbulence, entry-exit etc
-Lines must be well planned so the bomber can get time to get the aircraft stable and at the correct speed. Their dump speed is critical as a high-speed dump causes excessive positive G's and an uncontrollable nose high attitude. These excessive G's can break wings, cause blackouts etc. In this regard down hill, down wind drops are normally out. The best bet for a start is to get the bomber to fly overhead and choose their line and direction. Try and work out why and remember next time. Down wind drops are the norm because the load spreads more and the area is usually clear of smoke. The bomber will be doing about 110 to 120 mph IAS, which means he covers 60 metres/second. Remember to take the tail wind effect into consideration.
Fire Fighting
In Zululand we patrol to hopefully get the fires when they are still small. When you spot a fire on an FDI over 50 the first call is to the bombers. They are going to get there and bomb the head. They will try and hold the head until the ground crew arrives.
When through no fault of yours the fire is already out of control the flanks are attacked.
When the decision is made to attack the flanks you must work out, with the bombers and foresters help, which one to hit. You must take into account...
-Where is the fire going?
-Are there roads, indigenous bush, fire breaks, rivers etc on the flanks that will slow it down?
-Which flank has the potential for the most loss and fastest fire spread?
-Which flank can the bombers safely get into i.e. entry, run, exit and obstructions?
-Which flank are the ground crew supporting you on?
-When is the wind going to change and which flank will become the head?
Once the flank is chosen the guys get in there and then your work starts.
Target Acquisition
There are three ways to get the bomber to drop the loads where you want them.
-As mentioned paint a picture while he is inbound so that he knows where to go before he even sees the fire. He will then drop on visible flame at his own discretion.
-Steer the bomber in from a predetermined point or fix in a given direction. Heading changes are then given until you call the drop. (See example)
A typical run in will go as follows.
S- Bomber 1 give me a call smoke in sight.
B- Smoke in sight 5 min out.
S- Wind is northwest, 25 knots. The main fire is in mature gums running fast on ground. Head is crowning uphill in young pines. Line up on left flank, which is parallel to tar road. Load will be on first visible flame from tail forwards. Run in is clear of obstacles. Pull up will be in thick smoke with rising ground straight ahead.
B- Copy left flank first flame. Negative on target.
S- I have you visible. I will call load. Line is good, aim for thick white smoke on left flank. (Change radios - Ground have a bomber inbound, left flank from tail. Clear line.)
B- Copy
G- Copy
S- Line is good .......Come right a fraction. Hold that heading. Standby drop...........drop NOW. Load was good. Bomber 2 you are clear inbound on same line.
-Leading the bomber in by flying on the drop line at low altitude with the bomber on your tail. This procedure is not for the inexperienced. The aircraft is not made for the pounding that it will endure in turbulent conditions. Leave this as a final option on a nice calm day. Talk it through the bombers. They will know if it is necessary or not.
Remember to talk the whole procedure through with your bombers to work out break directions, clearing altitudes etc.
-The positioning for the drop call is tricky.
You have to be above and parallel to minimise the parallax error. Any wind must be accounted for and the line and call adjusted accordingly. Remember your IF training in the let down when you had to lay off, extend legs etc for wind? Same thing. You will basically be flying racetracks the whole time. Now throw in the fact that tall trees break the speed of the load very quickly and the flame is often nowhere near the smoke! The golden rule is that water ‘in the black' (already burnt area) is an absolute waste. Try and get the load one third on flame and the rest in the green. On a very hot flank or when bombing the head put the whole load in the green and let the fire burn itself out against the load.
"The more you practise the luckier you get".
Ask the bombers if you can call their loads on a calm fire with visible flame. Talk them through the whole run as if they can't see the flame. They will position themselves on the best line and do the drop, but see how far out you were. Work out why you were out and try again. After a few fires you will be able to feel when the drop is right. Then you are cooking on gas. Always remember that a slightly early drop is better than a late drop. Late drops allow the fire to creep around the load and start the whole flank again. Once again talk to the bombers about all movements until you are sure of yourself.
-Load coverage is effected be the wind speed and direction, drop speed, terrain, fuel type, foam / Gel content and drop height.
Loads into wind tend to stay together more and cover less distance.
Down wind will spread the load out for max coverage.
Call for a low and slow drop into wind to put all 2000 litres in a very small area with maximum penetration and impact.
Higher drops will cool the whole area down but have little effect on extinguishing the fire.
-Where possible the loads must be backed up by the ground crew. We can kill 80 percent of the flame but the smouldering embers need to be mopped up before they start the cycle again. The application of medium term retardants have made this problem much better but the potential is still there.
-When bombing brush lines do not drop directly on the flames. It is dangerous, loads tend to pick up the burning trash and spread it far and wide and a load will not put a brush line out. Rather bomb next to and ahead of the flames to stop the spread. Let the line burn out in the middle while watching very carefully for spot fires and whirlwinds. Whirlwinds (‘Zulu-Sipoki) are very frightening mini cyclones that like generating in hot brush fires. They form a ‘fire spout' that can go over a 1000ft into the air, throwing burning branches and sometimes logs a surprising distance from the main burn. On the ground the winds are so strong that they strip bark off the stumps. Get out of the area fast and take pictures!
-When working with more than two bombers you must know at all times where they are and what their loading and fuel status is. The ground crews may need accurate ETA's for loads in hot sectors.
-The loads can also be held for a formation drop. That is when all the bombers orbit and co-ordinate their drops together. This is very effective on a reasonably quite, straight flank for getting max coverage or on a hot section where all the loads are dropped in the same area.
-The ground crew must be advised of all loads coming in. A forester was killed in 1995 by a mature pine tree that was broken at the base by a load. The ground was warned of the drop but the ground crew were confused by the spotter doing a leading run in. They thought the load had missed. As the foresters moved back onto the fire line the load went in. For interest sake the genus of pine involved was Taeda, which is naturally very brittle but even more so when hot. If you have a fire in pines it won't hurt to ask the ground crew what genus the trees are and act accordingly. If you are going to lead the drop warn the ground of the fact.
-Talk to the bomber pilots and keep them informed of load accuracy and any target changes. Keep the messages short but don't go quiet on a bomber. Some need you to give them constant patter especially on their final line, some not. Keep them informed of any impending weather change too as this will change the landing and take-off directions. An unannounced wind change on take-off will cause the bomber to abort the load and waste time
-Keep comms with the ground about the foam or gel effectiveness. Too little foam will reduce the adhesion of the water on the fuel. Too much will make the load "dry" as the foam ties the water in the bubbles. Too much gel will reduce penetration but give longer term retardant properties and vice versa. As most aircraft will have on board gel tanks this will never change. 1kg of Fyre Fix gel will treat 2000lt of water or 1 load.
Back burns
These are fairly scary things and should not be suggested unless you are willing to go to court to defend your decision.
If back burns are put in it is fairly likely that you will have a senior forester in the aircraft with you and he will have the final say. Use the bombers wisely so that you can send them to the back burn if necessary.
Out of Control Fires
Until someone works out a better description we describe an out of control fire by the following criterion.
If the bombers are not gaining any control on the head at the time due to fuel, terrain, wind, accessibility, smoke, flames etc
If the bombers are only being used on the flanks for the prevention of lateral spread while the head moves forward unchecked.
An out of control fire may not stay out of control for long. The moment the head can be attacked again the aircraft must be brought back in. Fire is a very dynamic beast and there are so many variables to the travel and spread rate that the bottom line to working on them is keep your eyes open. Assess the changes as they happen and react accordingly.
Loss Control
Don't get fixated on only one target. The whole fire needs to be watched over for flare-ups and quiet sectors that suddenly become raging infernos.
-If the fire was started intentionally there is a very good chance that the arsonist will wait until all the resources are in one area and then put a fire in again somewhere else. Keep a very good lookout in the surrounding areas.
-In this regard you also could have the problem of another fire occurring while all the bombers are working on one fire.
The questions to be asked are...
1. Are the bombers working on the head?
2. Is the fire is out of control.
3. Are the bombers totally indispensable at that time? That is are they preventing the imminent loss of life.
4. If the fire is not quite under control will it get out of control if the bombers leave for the second fire?
5. What does the other fire look like and how is it behaving?
6. Can the bombers prevent the second fire getting out of control if used right now?
These questions must be asked because it is better to have one out of control fire than two. The procedure then is to talk to the fire boss and give him all the details. He will more than likely allow the bombers to leave for the other fire.
Remember that ground crews will have to be available to assist the bombers in mopping up.
Fire Behaviour
Fires are never the same and many things govern the rate spread. The only common denominator is that fire burns trees and fire has no respect for human rules or lives.
Aspect
Terrain can slow a fire right down or turn it into a raging inferno.
-Fire burns uphill faster than down because the heat ahead of the flame front will dry the vegetation ahead and cause it to burn easier.
-A tight valley will create a chimney effect with very intense flame coming over the top.
-Fire will even burn up a steep cliff if there is enough material to burn.
Wind
-The stronger the wind the faster the fire will burn.
-Wind will cause burning embers and twigs to be carried far past the active head. When the wind is gusting over 100kph you can expect spotting in excess of 5 km's
-It becomes more difficult for the bombers to get into the fire line.
Vegetation
Different trees burn at different rates.
-Young pines are the worst because the branches are close to the ground and pines burn like Avgas. They are also one of the most expensive to loose as all the work has been put in to plant them but they burn to nothing.
-Medium term pines are as bad as they now have a needle beds in the rows. Very costly to loose.
-Mature pines burn spectacularly with a very hot and intense flame. Some of the wood may be recoverable though.
-Young gum coppice burns fairly slowly unless the wind is howling and there is a high slash load.
-Mature gums are very tall and rarely crown. The fire normally travels in the leaf trash fairly fast. Fires in tall gums are difficult to bomb and target.
-Wattle is a pleasure. It does burn but very slowly. Wattle brush lines are a different story. They burn very hot.
-Indigenous bush does not burn because of the green undergrowth and general moist atmosphere found in these forests. They can however smoulder for days, which could cause a flare up.
-Grass burns very fast with frequent spotting
-Brush lines and clear felled areas are very difficult to extinguish. They burn very hot. The brush is often stacked very densely. The only way to fight brush line fires is let them burn and assist with controlling lateral spread. Bomber loads will be very ineffective, as the water will not penetrate dense lines. Ground crew mop up is essential. They tend to spot easily because of the heavy fuel load and extreme heat.
Radio Procedures
We are very fortunate in Zululand to have a very well organised radio network.
Believe me bad radio links in the air are a spotters nightmare.
The radios are not complicated but need some explanation.
ForestryRadios
Most companies have two channels. One is the simplex and the other the duplex channel.
-Simplex transmissions are strictly line of sight between two stations on the same frequency.
-Duplex transmissions are on one frequency to a repeater station, which is on a high spot. The signal is then re-transmitted on the simplex frequency for that company. Duplex channels have a much greater range.
-If the radio is on the simplex channel you will still hear the duplex transmissions but will only transmit on simplex and vice versa.
-The aircraft is the best aerial in the world with the best line of sight too. You should rarely have to use duplex in the air. Sometimes the foresters also need to be reminded that when they are out of sight of the repeater their duplex won't work.
Don't hesitate to ask the foresters to go to simplex if at any time the communications break down because of terrain.
-Keep the messages to the ground as short and concise as possible. Remember that a lot of the foresters and drivers have a very limited command of English. Speak slowly and clearly with long words kept to a minimum. Make sure they understand what you have said and visa versa.
If you can speak Zulu use it.
-Get to know the intercom box well so that finger trouble doesn't cause comm failure.
AircraftRadios
The frequencies used over the fire are
Vryheid - Inland - 123.40
Melmoth/Babanango - Inland - 123.45
Kwambonambi - Coastal - 123.50
Mbazwana - Coastal - 123.55
-If interference is picked up from any outside areas change one decimal point up or down. Don't forget to inform your bombers of the change.
-Try keeping a listening watch on common VFR 124.80. The best way to keep other planes clear is to transmit on this frequency every half hour. Keep your eyes outside the cockpit too. When you do call remember to give your height and QNH. A guy from Durban could be on 998 while you are on 1030! A very extreme case but the theory stands. At least you will know what is causing the 60-knot wind!!
Conclusion
A final word to all aspirant spotter pilots.
You will gain some of the best flying experience in the next 4 months.
You will be looking forward to starting the engine one day and praying that it doesn't start the next.
You'll meet first class people who will put their lives in your hands. You will make lifetime friends if you don't scare them.
You may see very few fires or the whole area could turn into a fireball.
You'll have days of mindless boredom interspersed by hours of sheer terror.
You will learn why aircraft have rudders.
You will find your limits of experience; use the limit line to stay alive.
You will learn that aborting a landing will not cause the end of the world or make you look stupid.
Most of all you'll have great fun.
This training manual is not the be all and end all. Learn from the bombers and from other experienced spotters. There is no such thing as a pilot that knows everything. As a bomber pilot once said...
" Look and see, hear and listen"
Whatever happens, the experience will go with you as a bonus in your logbook and will stand you in good stead where ever you go.
Good luck and take it easy.
Trevor Wilson
Comp/Spotrain
Ps. here follows a humorous idea of what we do for a living!
RULES OF THE AIR
1. Every takeoff is optional. Every landing is mandatory.
2. If you push the stick forward, the houses (trees) get bigger. If you pull the stick back, they get smaller. That is, unless you keep pulling the stick all the way back, then they get bigger again.
3. Flying isn't dangerous. Crashing is what's dangerous. (Ask Mike)
4. It's always better to be down here wishing you were up there than up there wishing you were down here.
5. The ONLY time you have too much fuel is when you're on fire. (Piet)
6. The propeller is just a big fan in front of the plane used to keep the pilot cool. When it stops, you can actually watch the pilot start sweating.
7. When in doubt, hold on to your altitude. No one has ever collided with the sky.
8. A 'good' landing is one from which you can walk away. A 'great' landing is one after which they can use the plane again. (All the boys that break the legs off)
9. Learn from the mistakes of others. You won't live long enough to make all of them yourself. (New spotters)
10. You know you've landed with the wheels up if it takes full power to taxi to the ramp.
11. The probability of survival is inversely proportional to the angle of arrival: Large angle of arrival, small probability of survival and vice versa.
12. Never let an aircraft take you somewhere your brain didn't get to five minutes earlier.
13. Stay out of clouds. The silver lining everyone keeps talking about might be another airplane going in the opposite direction. Reliable sources also report that mountains have been known to hide out in clouds.
14. Always try to keep the number of landings you make equal to the number of take offs you've made.
15. There are three simple rules for making a smooth landing. Unfortunately no one knows what they are.
16. You start with a bag full of luck and an empty bag of experience. The trick is to fill the bag of experience before you empty the bag of luck.
17. Helicopters can't fly; they're just so ugly the earth repels them. Pilots don't drive them either; they are just along for the ride. (Zorg)
18. If all you can see out of the window is ground that's going round and round and all you can hear is commotion coming from the passenger compartment, things are not at all as they should be.
19. In the ongoing battle between objects made of aluminum going hundreds of miles per hour and the ground going zero miles per hour, the ground has yet to loose. (Ask Mike)
20. Good judgment comes from experience. Unfortunately, the experience usually comes from bad judgment.
21. It's always a good idea to keep the pointy end going forward as much as possible.
23. Remember, gravity is not just a good idea. It's the law. And it's not subject to negotiations.
24. The four most useless things to a pilot are the altitude above you, runway behind you, fuel still in the drum on the ground and a tenth of a second ago.
Spotter Training Manual